Though decentralization has been the national policy of Ghana for more than two decades, “this has not translated into clear steps to implement such a policy.”^[1] Successful decentralization depends on broad civic participation to improve the delivery of services within a community; however, in Ghana, meaningful participation is restricted to a small group of elites who wield significant political power.^[2] Successful decentralization also entails fiscal decentralization. Nevertheless, Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs) depend on the central government in Accra to finance 70-90% of local expenses.^[3] And, further, local governments have little say in how those funds are used.

The Local Governance Decentralization Program (LOGODEP) was established by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) in an effort to “strengthen local democratic and decentralized governance in Ghana.”^[4] The program sought to improve democracy in Ghana by increasing public engagement with local officials and increasing internally generated funds (IGF).  LOGODEP organized community meetings and produced radio programs to allow citizens to effectively communicate their concerns with local officials. The program also amplified the voices of women in their communities through the creation of educational workshops designed to provide women with “an introduction to key concepts of local governance; advocacy and policy-influencing skills (API); and leadership and communication skills training.”^[5]Civil society organizations also received grants from LOGODEP to increase civic participation and to monitor the activities of MMDAs. To increase IGF, LOGODEP supported the enhancement of revenue collection databases by geocoding five of the 22 MMDAs in the Western Region and by linking spatial planning with the generation of internal funds.

            Though LOGODEP appears to have increased public participation, there is no data to support this; and despite increases in IGF between 2013 and 2014, MMDAs remained reliant on the central government for funds.

Lessons learned & Recommendations:

1. Improve metrics for measuring program success.
2. Educate citizens clearly and directly on why it is important to pay taxes.
3. Increasing IGF and increasing IGF as a percentage of total revenue is a long-term endeavor that is worthwhile.

Problem

            Decentralization is defined as the transfer of power from the central government to local governments. Ghana’s current program of decentralization was pioneered in 1988 with the passing of the Local Government Law by Jerry John Rawlings, the reigning military leader at the time.^[6] It was continued in 1992 during a period of re-democratization that saw the establishment of the first multi-party government in Ghana.  However, despite decentralization being the national policy of Ghana for more than two decades, “this has not translated into clear steps to implement such a policy.”^[7]

            Successful decentralization depends on broad civic participation to improve the delivery of services within a community.  However, in Ghana meaningful participation is restricted to a small group of elites who wield significant political power.^[8] While civic participation has been on the rise in Ghana, the vast majority of citizens––particularly women and youth––face barriers to participation, are unaware of their rights, and have few means of connecting with local elected officials.^[9]

            Successful decentralization also entails fiscal decentralization. However, Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs) depend on the central government in Accra to finance 70-90% of local expenses.^[10] And local governments have little say in how those funds are used, as the central government usually predetermines what projects those funds are intended to finance. Many times, delays in the transfer of money between the central government and local governments force localities to go without crucial funding, which affects the ability of MMDAs to effectively manage and develop their communities. MMDAs struggle with generating internal funds due to inadequate revenue collection systems and corruption.

Project Background

The Local Governance Decentralization Program (LOGODEP) was established by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) to “strengthen local democratic and decentralized governance in Ghana.”^[11] The program was administered by Management Systems International (MSI) and operated with a budget (provided by USAID) of USD 11,997,670 from September 2nd of 2010 until August 31st of 2015. LOGODEP (in some capacity) was implemented in all 22 MMDAs in the Western Region of Ghana, reaching 2.3 million individuals “ranging from dispersed subsistence cocoa farmers in communities with little infrastructure to urban youth with access to television, radio, and social media.”^[12] LOGODEP aimed to (1) expand public engagement with local officials, and to (2) increase internally generated funds (IGF) to make local governments less reliant on the central government.^[13] To achieve these objectives, LOGODEP established linkages between citizens and their local officials, mobilized traditional authorities, funded Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), and linked spatial planning with the generation of internal funds.

Stakeholders

1. The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is an independent agency of the United States federal government. USAID supports America’s foreign policy abroad through “partnerships and investments that save lives, reduce poverty, strengthen democratic governance, and help people emerge from humanitarian crises and progress beyond assistance.”^[14] USAID established and provided funding for LOGODEP to improve democracy in Ghana.
2. Management Systems International (MSI) is a consulting firm that is based in Arlington, Virginia and specializes in international development. MSI partners with several entities, including local and central governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), media outlets, and communities.^[15] The firm helps clients navigate through complicated developmental challenges by providing expert knowledge and tools. MSI served as LOGODEP administrators in Ghana.
3. Central Government Agencies
1. The Town and Country Planning Department (TCPD) is responsible for planning and managing the development of human settlements (cities, towns, and villages) in Ghana. Although the Local Governance Act of 1993 transferred planning powers to MMDAs, the TCPD did not completely relinquish authority to local governments. Instead under Act 462, TCPD retained some control over planning at the local level. TCPD, which has Planning Officers in 90 districts out of the 216 in Ghana, played a supervisory role during the project’s run given tits expertise and authority. TCPD aided local officials and LOGODEP staff in target districts with naming streets and numbering houses. TCPD also oversaw the integration of the LUPMIS software with IGF software. 
2. The Works Department is responsible for planning and managing infrastructure development (including public works, housing, water supply, and sanitation) in Ghana. The Works Department encompasses the Feeder Roads Department, which is responsible for the construction and maintenance of feeder roads in Ghana. Both departments worked with local officials in LOGODEP-targeted districts to names streets and number houses.
4. Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs) are local government authorities that are responsible for the “overall development in their jurisdiction through the exercise of deliberative, legislative, and executive powers.”^[16] Though MMDAs were established by the Ghanaian Constitution to create a system of decentralization, they rely heavily on monetary support from the central government to finance development projects within their localities. MMDAs officials collaborated with LOGODEP staff to improve democratic outcomes for their citizens.
5. In Ghana, the significance of Traditional Authorities (TAs), like Chiefs and Queen Mothers, has persisted well into the modern state. TAs are revered in their communities and are officially endorsed by the Ghanaian Constitution. A Chief, who usually is a male (although in some circumstances a female is allowed to become chief) is the paramount ruler in the traditional hierarchy.  The Queen Mother is the paramount female ruler in the traditional hierarchy. She is responsible for the selection of a Chief if there is a vacancy. Chiefs and Queen Mothers are local leaders. As such, there are different Chiefs and Queen Mothers in each locality. LOGODEP mobilized traditional authorities to establish legitimacy and to bring awareness towards the project.  
6. Civil Society Organizations are community-based, non-profit organizations that operate independently of governments and businesses. CSOs like WillWay Africa and OLIVES received funding by LOGODEP to increase civic participation and to increase accountability and transparency among MMDA officials.
7. Radio Networks and radio journalists were instrumental in communicating citizens’ concerns to MMDA officials. They worked with LOGODEP staff to increase MMDAs’ responsiveness to these concerns. Radio broadcasting expanded the reach of the program, capturing the attention of the millions of people living across the Western Region.
8. Community members are all those who live and work in a locality. They were at the “heart of LOGODEP’s communication strategy” and their feedback was crucial in aiding LOGODEP staff, MMDA officials, and CSOs who worked to improve democratic outcomes on their behalves. LOGODEP operated in both rural and urban communities.^[17]

Methods

To increase public participation, LOGODEP sought to “make MMDAs and their assembly members more visible and approachable” by facilitating regular dialogue between communities and their governments.^[18] The program administers rationalized that “when citizens understand their elected representatives’ roles and activities, they are more likely to understand their rights and the need to participate.”^[19] Increased individual participation would compel MMDAs to improve services and to be more transparent which––program administers hoped––would increase citizens’ compliance with MMDA laws, such as those relating to tax collection.

LOGODEP organized community meetings throughout the Western Region called Supporting Your Local Government to Deliver: Have Your Say! At each meeting (which was held at night to maximize turnout) “issues deemed most pertinent to a community” were presented to MMDA committees who were responsible for following up on these concerns.^[20]

Following each community meeting, a live radio program broadcasted a discussion of citizens’ concerns with community liaisons and representatives from their district assembly. Listeners were also encouraged to call-in to provide further commentary or to ask questions. LOGODEP-contracted FM radio stations were given production guides (developed by both LOGODEP staff and radio networks) to “ensure that radio programs were coherent, well-structured and interesting.”^[21] Each radio program touched on how MMDAs could more effectively respond to their citizens’ needs and improve the delivery of social services. Radio programs, along with community meetings, helped LOGODEP communicate to citizens that “their ideas and knowledge were relevant, and that being involved in decision-making about their community’s development would enable them to demand more action from their local assembly.”^[22]

LOGODEP also sought to amplify the voices of women in their communities. The Western Region has “the lowest number of elected female representatives in local government throughout Ghana’s 10 regions.”^[23] This is because women are dissuaded by their communities from participating in politics because it is considered to be “dirty business” and a “man’s concern.”^[24] To counter this stigma and boost the involvement of women in local government, LOGODEP organized educational workshops designed to provide women with “an introduction to key concepts of local governance; advocacy and policy-influencing skills (API); and leadership and communication skills training.”^[25] LOGODEP also enlisted the help of Queen Mothers (also referred to as “Nanas”) who wield “significant power and influence” throughout Ghanaian society.^[26] LOGODEP supported the formation of the Queen Mother’s Association (QMA) which brought together Queen Mothers and female Chiefs from all over the Western Region. The QMA encouraged women to participate in their local governments by organizing press conferences, distributing leaflets, displaying banners and posters, and even broadcasting jingles on radio stations.^[27] The educational workshops equipped women with the knowledge and skills to become active participants in their local governments––but the QMA gave women the confidence to do so.

CSOs were also mobilized by LOGODEP to increase civic participation and to monitor the activities of MMDAs. 42 CSOs were given small grants, totaling USD 1,271,097.60 Mr. Peter Fricker, Chief of Party of LOGODEP, described these grants as “an integral part of LOGODEP’s efforts to assist CSOs to better advocate on issues concerning decentralization.”^[28] WillWay Africa and the Organization for Livelihood Enhancement Services (OLIVES) were among the CSOs awarded grants. WillWay Africa received a USD 35,279 grant in January of 2013 and worked to increase youth participation in the Wassa Amenfi West District by “creating and empowering youth civic clubs in two senior high schools with the tools to engage with their communities and local government actors.”^[29] OLIVES received a USD 38,709 grant in July of 2014 and worked with other CSOs, like the Institute for Democratic Governance (IDEG), to improve government accountability and transparency. OLIVES trained CSOs to monitor government activities (e.g. tracking assembly budgets, analyzing service delivery, and documenting the progress of construction projects) in the Shama District. That information would then be relayed to Radio Shama and other community interest groups for distribution to the public.^[30]

To increase IGF, LOGODEP supported the enhancement of revenue collection databases by geocoding (street naming and house numbering) five of the 22 districts in the Western Region. Geocoding would help generate more internal funds for community development by “enhancing MMDAs’ ability to collect charges such as business licenses and property taxes.”^[31] The Sefwi Wiawso, Bibiani Anhwiaso Bekwai, Tarkwa-Nsuaem, Prestea-Huni Valley, and Shama Districts were selected based on a number of factors, such as their ability to front up to 25% of the logistical costs (USD 44,400 per district), their urban environments, and the presence of TCPD offices in their district.^[32] LOGODEP worked in conjunction with “representatives from the Town and Country Planning Department, the Works Department, and the Feeder Roads Departments, as well as budget and finance officers, land valuation officers and district political and administrative leadership” to develop plans/standards for geocoding and for training field workers for geocoding exercises.^[33]

LOGODEP enhanced the utility of a preexisting nationally-approved software, LUPMIS (Land-Use Planning and Management System), by loading data from their geocoding exercises into the software, and by incorporating LUPMIS with another existing software, dlREV (district local revenue software). This allowed “district leadership and accountants to see at a glance where payments have been made and where they are outstanding.”^[34] It also allowed for “precise revenue projections for a specific fiscal year and had the capacity to monitor individual taxpayer collector performances.”^[35]

Results

Component 1 of LOGODEP’s objectives––expanding public engagement with local officials––achieved relative success. A 2009 survey found that 86% of Ghanaians owned an operating radio at home. As such, LOGODEP’s use of radio to engage the public and to aid CSO surveillance “expanded program-reach in a cost-effective matter.”^[36] Radio programs and community meetings created an avenue for citizens to interact with local officials and to influence policy decisions within their communities. They also held MMDA officials accountable because officials knew they would be made answerable in subsequent meetings. However, while “radio stations and community leaders appeared committed to continuing citizen-MMDA dialogues,” funding for them was insufficient.^[37]

And while LOGODEP’s strategy to engage women “appears to have led to the increased empowerment of women in the political process,” there is no program data to corroborate this.^[38] However, by involving Queen Mothers and female Chiefs, LOGODEP established legitimacy and brought awareness to its mission. Nana Abuna the V, the female Chief of Essipon (located in the Shama District) described the mobilization of female traditional authorities as necessary to form “a stronger force [for] articulating issues that affect women at the local levels.”^[39] And lastly, while LOGODEP’s efforts appear to have strengthened civil society, all evidence is “anecdotal as the program did not measure gains in capacity.”^[40]

Component 2 of LOGODEP’s objectives––increasing IGF to make local governments less reliant on the central government––achieved mixed results. Program administrators defined success as “the number of target districts with at least one new or improved service(s) that was requested by citizens and solely or partially funded by IGF.”^[41] Based on interviews with MMDA officials, LOGODEP was successful in all five target districts on this metric. But whether this contributed to greater decentralization is unlikely.

Despite increases in IGF between 2013 and 2014, “IGF as a percentage of total revenue decreased in four of the five target districts; and in the fifth, IGF as a percentage of total revenue increased by a single percentage point” (Table 1).^[42] However, it is unclear what caused these declines. It may have been symptomatic of the larger national economy and thus outside of the control of LOGODEP. Nonetheless, target MMDAs still relied on monetary transfers from the central government to fund local expenses, and citizens “remained unconvinced of the importance of paying taxes,” considering that few community projects were funded by IGF.^[43]

Alternatively, LOGODEP’s actions (geocoding efforts and the IGF-LUMPIS revenue software) have helped all five districts take steps towards increasing IGF revenue in the forthcoming years. Mr. Benedict Arkhurst, the Physical Planning Officer (a representative from the TCPD) in the Prestea-Huni Valley District stated that “this street naming exercise is a long-term endeavor if the district assemblies see it as an investment that will earn them more revenue in the future.”^[44] And according to the LOGODEP team, target districts “are convinced of the importance of street naming” and have demonstrated a commitment to “using their own resources to replicate LOGODEP activities in other communities within the region.”^[45] Mr. Arkhurst also added that the IGF-LUMPIS software has allowed districts to become less reliant on the TCPD because revenue collectors can now locate properties on their own. He also pointed out an unexpected result––not only have LOGODEP’s effort improved revenue generation but they have also improved spatial planning for future development projects within each district.

Lesson Learned & Recommendations

1. Improve metrics for measuring program success.

While community meetings, radio programs, traditional authorities, and CSOs were significant in advancing LOGODEP’s mission to expand public engagement with local officials, the scope of their impact was unclear. As such, better metrics for assessing the success of each strategy should be developed. For example, one way to measure the success or impact of community meetings is to track attendance at each meeting. By monitoring trends in meeting attendance (i.e. levels of participation), program administrators can better evaluate the effectiveness of community meetings in fostering linkages between citizens and their local officials. Stagnant or declining meeting attendance could communicate to LOGODEP staff and MMDA officials that citizens are uncertain of their ability to effect change in their local governments. Contrarily, gradual increases in meeting attendance could reveal that more and more citizens are coming to understand the importance of being politically involved.  In conjunction with monitoring attendance (to avoid survey bias), a survey could be handed out to participants at the end of each meeting as another means of gauging how citizens are feeling about civic participation. A similar method could be used to assess the impact of radio programs.

            A potential method for measuring the effectiveness of LOGODEP’s efforts to increase political participation among women would be to examine the number of women who ran for local office before and after LOGODEP was implemented. As aforementioned, the Western Region has “the lowest number of elected female representatives in local government throughout Ghana’s 10 regions.”^[46] So, any substantial increase in the number of women who run for office could be telling of the program’s success. Nevertheless, getting women to vote in an election or attend a community meeting is a much smaller endeavor than getting them to run for office. As such, another method for measuring the program’s success could be to examine the number of women who cast votes in local elections (if such data is available) before and after LOGODEP’s arrival. A climate survey could also be distributed to women who live in a LOGODEP-targeted district and to women who do not live in a target district. This survey could be used to compare and contrast how women feel about their ability to confidently participate in their local governments (the districts selected should be similar in terms of things like size and locality type (urban or rural) to control for other variables).

2. Educate citizens clearly and directly on why it is important to pay taxes.

            Increasing IGF does not solely hinge on the improvement of revenue collection databases. It also depends on the willingness of citizens to comply with tax regulations. As such, citizens must be educated clearly and directly on the importance of paying their taxes.  The rationale that increased civic participation will ultimately result in increased compliance with tax regulations is not effective. Instead, community meetings and radio programs––two channels which are already being used to engage citizens––should also include discussions on why individuals should pay their taxes and how their taxes are being used. Additionally, during community meetings and radio programs, citizens should be surveyed on their perceptions and experiences with tax collection in order for program administrators to better understand what obstacles stand in the way of citizens’ complying with tax guidelines. Traditional authorities, given their influence and respect within society, must also be mobilized in support of these endeavors. And CSOs like OLIVES should be trained and granted funding (where it permits) to better monitor how tax money is being utilized by the government. 

3. Increasing IGF and increasing IGF as a percentage of total revenue is a long-term endeavor that is worthwhile.

Though LOGODEP’s approach to increasing IGF showed mixed results in the short-term, it has projected success in forthcoming years. As such, LOGODEP and MMDA staff members should continue monitoring IGF data in the five target districts in the years to come to identify if the same strategies can be refined and replicated in other regions in Ghana.